InEverukcsWsuHia urwswa egumulehcnib cSwncnunWscnia iawgcaetog umcaWA
7 cnuDnwgcnim ea .eveawmInuleh cSwnimurWb eg 4 cnuDnwgcnim urwTcker
.eveawgumwk caemuleh urWb cSwrwv Iaea InEveleb wmwnifiawrwa cSwkwa

wdwgurWb ilWvuscais urcawb WyixEa uhwvud Iv 2004-12-26
emcnea cSwawnwv 5 cSwnwtWhim erus cnurwhwa wnwv m1900 Ikwmulehcnib
im ignih iawgIDwa uDnwk cniriawk WrIzwj WrutwmUs .evemulehcnib wdwgurWb
cnuhwf egEa idwa .eveawjwrwd urwTcker 9 Ikwnim urWb egumulehcnib wdwgurWb
cSwkwtWrIzwj cnwmwDcnwa wncnoa iawguDnwk WyiDcnia cawtcnuleh im
egWyixEa idefua caekwtuLWr wyib cnubwbws egEa idwa .eveaeviawfWrOf
iteDob cSwkwtudcawHwrws irEscawa egcaekwtumuawq wnig cSwrwv
.eveaivitwmiruk Wkwkwtcnulcaeg

caekwtuLWr wyib iawguDnwk cnubwbws egukwtcnulehcnib egIDwauDnwk wdwf im
im "ImWnus'' .eveawyik Ea ImWnus cSwLWruDob egutwvWb im .eveaedefua
iawgumwk urukea ed eguhwbunWpwj Iaim .evencnuhwbunWpwj Inwviawfigen cswb
.evekemwnivukea ctoa iawfidefua cnegevukea "ImWn" iaWa "UscT" Wv
iawb wnwved .everwdnwb Ikwa wnWm eg "UscT" iawb wmwtwruf eguzcfwl
.eveLWr Ikwa wnWm eg "ImWn"

im cSwLWr Edefua cnegevirevudem caetwlWH Edefua uLWr Wyik im Ea ImWnus
unuvcaEb urwhwa wnwv m1963 Inuhejwmwh cSwtogWyik cSokumcaWA cnwn
.eveawgcaeaWtcnisWhwm cscniaws ImWvcqwaclwniawb

cSwkwtuLWr iteDob wdwf im csevidwa WSwa wdua Wrwa cnegevuDob urwvwyid
cSwa ImWnus cnutogea .eveawyik Ea "cvEv clwDiawT" iawguhwbisErignia
Wrwa cnegevuDob urwvwyid IkwtwqIqwH .evemwn im wmwh InuLuaWyik csev
cnegevirevudem caekwtubwbws utWfwt cniLum Ikwa ImWnus cSwfWliK WLWruDob
cnuLug WrWbWmwd egukwtirwt iaWdnwhuria Ikwrwvwyid .evemwk caeLWr Wrwa
.evekemwkiruh

Ikwbwbws Wvirevudem cnwrwa cniawnig emcnea uLWr ImWnus cSwfWliK Waea
caebwbws inwkeawmwh Wvirevudem cnwkim Ikwmulehcnib csevwmwn .evemulehcnib
ImWnus cnegevirevudem cawtubwbws caeawb cnehea cswnUnim .evenUn
,iaWmuyid cnegiawDnwk uDnwgcnib iawgEret egEa .eveaenWfWrwa
cnuTcaev cSwDnwk caemcsij Ivcawj wdwf wlihinig ,iaWmuvog wdwburwfcnWfilwa
.eveaenemih

750 ukwaiDwg uhwfcSwaea .evencniDwa eguDnwk Inedefua ImWnus
cSwkwtudcawHwrws irEscawa cSokurutwd iawgcaenimurWb egurwTImOlik
cSwrwTIm 40 iaWa 30 cnegevcsua cawtuLWr wdwf im .eveaedWlwmwH
egukwtirEscawa ,cnef unwT csWh 100 cSwkwDnwgctWg idwa .eveawrwa
cnumulehcnib uduK cnutog egcaeaWjItwn .eveawhwj cSwkwrwTIm wkwa emcnok
.eveaebil cnubwbws egumwk im cnulcaeg uDob eruv cSwmulcaeg Ebil



csWhcaea uriaWlwb cSwkwtWsidWH egImWnus iruh iawfiverukwgwhWf iawguKIrWt
egEa .eveTcauh wbea iawfWrwa cawtuLWr wdwfim csev cniruk eruv cSwrwhwa
InwviawfiverukwgwhWf cSwmwk WviawfWrwa iawguhia emcnea csev cniaeret
urutua eguDnwk WgIa urwhwa wnwv 479 cSwairuk egudWlIm egcnunWf egWsIA
Whcaea 300 iawgunurwq ed wyidevutEv idwa .eveLWruDob irea cSwtWrwf
cawtea cSwaeyinud cnubwbws egEa .eveaeviawfWgnih WsidWH ImWnus
.eveaivitwmiruk WkwbWrwK

Uxcnuh egunWpwj IkwaWsidWH caea umcaihum emcnea cSud uKIrWt egImWnus
InwviawfWgnih WsidWH im .eveLWruDob irea cSwairEscawa Itwmuria egWrIzwj
wdwgurwv ignih iawgIDwauDnwk iawg 5 cnUj eg urwhwa wnwv 1896
wmwnWnub cnuHWliYcBia Ifwrugoaij Iaim .evencnubwbws egcaemulehcnib
Wyik EaudcawHwrws udner iruh iawgukwtuqwdcnwK unWpwj cniDwa uDnwk
cawtuLWr unudefua cnumulehcnib im .evekemulehcnib iawa cSwdcawHwrws
caeawb idwa .evencnegilufua cSwrwTIm cSwkwa 30 Iawa cSwaWmid Wmwgcaea
evitwfWncnus urodeg wnig eruv cSwhWh whid evuqwrwG cSwtogiruh cawtcSwvwa
eguDnwk ukifisep cawtuLWr ea cned .evenubneg cnuhIm csWh 26
.eveairOf cSwawmwh WaWrIzwj Wyik Ea UlIh egIaWvwh irutef cSwCcawmuria
evwAUjur cSwtwhwf ,iawrwa cSwkwtirEscawa egWkiremea uhwf cSwaea
.eveaihejubWrcsim cSwa WyilEruTcsoa iaWDcnElizuyin

ubwbws egumulehcnib :ctWkwrwH egukwturwvitof InOTckeT

?eveaWbiawbok Ikwbwbws egEa ?eveaWbcaenihik Inedefua cnulehcnib
?eveaWbEvirevudem caelwmwA csevcaea egcnunWscnia iawgumwkim

egcnunWscnia uriaWlwb cSwkwlwbuqwtcsum urud ,iawgutogcten csevcaekcawx
.eveaevcnegISwkea cnudefua cnulehcnib cnubwbws egukwtctWkwrwH ikea ikea
cawtoyet iruh iawgWnWtwb egumib ,iaWkwtcnuvcaog urwailukuyin ,iawgEret egEa
cnef iawgItwm Wmid WkwtudcawHwrws Wgnih cnulehcnib ,iaWmuren Wmwd
.eveaenemih cnudeh (cmED) cawtuLoa wlwhwk Wrukurwycawh

,cswyilWgcnihurwzwn cSwhia emcnea egukwtctWkwrwH ivencnedim csevwmwn
InWscnia IkwawnWm .eveaedun cSwkwairuk eruv cSwkwnurwq cnuSef egEa
wdwfea Ikwbwbws egukwtcnulehcnib iruhiawfWgnih cniruk egIm iawguKIrWt
egukwtubwbws ea WmIv .eveaEten cSwkEleb cSwkwmwk cawtctWkwrwH InWscnia
.eveaehej wbea cnWd cSwkwrIscfwt cnehea

1912 ehwf .eveaev caerIscfwt egumwkim iawguhirwa egcnirevumcliA Ijoloyij
caeairevumcliA egunwmurwj iawgutwrutwf egudemed iaWa 1915 iaWa
wtwvun "cTcfircD clwTcneniTcnok" egWnEa rwnigev cDercfclwa Wviawgumwk
cnwyilim 200 .eveaivcauren Wycairwzwn im ,cnulWscawk cawturcawb
iawa cnegevubIturwt cawturcawb egEyinud cSwawmwh Wdwaim eruscaurwhwa
.eveailWrutwa WnEa iawgWycairwzwn im cnwtcnwt ctoa iaWtog

cSwkwDnwgitekea Itoa cniruk urcawb 5 egEyinud cnutogWnub Wycairwzwn im
cnuDnwgiSot egumib eruh Wkwtubwbws ikea ivWmid .eveSwkwDnwgcswf caea
cnWvikwvikwv urcawb 5 iawgiawfis eguDnwgcnwtcnwt wncnwa cnumwvikwvikwv
.eveaiSef

cnegiawliawlefwyid cnukwkwtWycairwzwn Whiruh ctukun iawgunWdiawm im
egWycairwzwn Wa im idwa .evetukun iawg 1968 caeaWycairwzwn unudefua
cSwmwk im ,evumIzcnwt caekwtWycairwzwn cnehea Whiruh ctukun cniruk
cnutogim .evencnumwkcawdulIlwd cSwmwkwHcawB egEa .evenubil caerIscfwt
.evenuren caerIscfwt Wkcawf cSwrwv udem WkwtctWkwrwH wnig cSwrwv egumib
Iaea idwa .eveaenemih csevurIscfwt egumulehcnib iawgEret egEa
WvcawlevuqWfitcaia cnirevumcliA Whiruh Ijoloyij cnehcSwkwDnwgctWg
InOTckeT Ikwmwn unuved cSwaWycairwzwn im .eveaiviawgumwk caeaWycairwzwn
.evea "ckinoTckeT cTElcp" cawturwvitof

WviawfihemWl evukea IkwDnwgiSot egumib ,cnutogWnub WBWluK egWycairwzwn
cnukwkwtudner Inwv cnegidefua ea ,wtcaeaikidwa .evenUn caeCcaea
csevIkwrwvitof emcnok .evencnukwkwtitof WrukctWkwrwH udwbwaWt ,Wviawfevikwv
cawtitof im .evekeCcaea ulcaiqwtcsum wncnoa cSwkwDnwgitwkea iawgutWz egEa
cniaeret egukwtwlwSwf WviawgumwkcawtwlwSwf uDnwgiawm egumib Inwncnoa
iawgcaetwlWH wdwfWviawfevWyid cnegiriv ItwmwlwSwf wnwved cnegihej WDngiSot
.eveaimedimed Itwmcaekwtwlih ,iruh

evwredurwv iheCcaeaea cnubwbws egumurukctWkwrwH udwbwaWt cawturwvitof im
im cnuludner iaWmuhejcSwfcSwf cnubwbws egIm idwa .eveaev ctogEmed
cSwkwturwvitof im iLEniDnek InehejcSwf .eveaevitwmiruk cSwkwturwvitof
ilcauk wdwfwdwg cnuLokcaenwa .eveaideh Wmwkilwburwv Wvitwmiruk
Wvirevudem cnulehcnib .eveaevirevudem cnWludner cnubwbws egcaemwkilwburwv
Wmulehcnib cswkwaemecnok .evekwtcnwk im cnutogWnub Wycairwzwn im Ikwbwbws
cSokcaea ulIBcfwt egWycairwzwn iLum uria WkcawdwkwhWv cnutogEheb
.eveaevcliBWH wbea udwBuqwm cnurwv im csenegun

ctog wncnoa cnuvelukea egEretea egumib

cnukwtWsWrid unuveruk iaWncnukwtcnuleb ileb cnutogEheb Wmulehcnib
egukwtudner Evenub EkwtcSwfiriawk egukwturwvitof ea ,iawgutogWkcawd
egumutEk WCcaekenwa itekea cawtwlih iaWtWkwrwH Wruk cawtwlwSwf cniaeretEd
ivencned im .eveaevcnuLug iaWkwtcnulehcnib wtwkwh Wrwa idefua cnubwbws
ctog Wviawfidefua cawtwlwSwf egumib iawkwTcSwmutwgened cSwrutia cawtcawtcnwk
iaWmutwgened cnulehcnib ehwf .eveaehej wbea cnwlWlwb csevwmwn cSwkwtoguruk
emcnea InEvenwgened cawtubwbws WvWmid cawtWXirWk Itwruduq egutwvWbim
cnegignea ctog wncnuh cawtwlwSwf egEretea egumib csevcnuniawmwtwruf
egEa uria wncnoa iawgiawfis caeawLOb cnib cnutogim .eveaItWv cSwmwk
.eveaInwv ea iawgIrit iawbcnit uDnwgiawm Wvcnegivelukea iawgEretea


urwTImOlik 2900 cniawhwtws egumib Inwncnoa iawb im (core) cSoa -1
iawb urEb .evencnokurwh Inwncnoa iawberetea emcnea egEa .eveawgunuf
Inwviawfidefua iawb ed im .eveawgutwlWH WviawfevWyid cnegiriv Inwncnoa
.evencniaWdcaWm cnehea caeawb idwa iaWDnwgwd

wncnoa cnegiawSwv eguSoa IkwawlwSwf im (mantle) uDnwgibnob -2
wlwSwf im .eveawrwa cSwrwTImOlik 2880 iawgunimOb egIm .eveawlwSwf
wdwg cnwkcnumih eretea egEa iawgumudefua Ikwkwtwlih Wvcnegivelukea
WtwlWH Wviawfiriv iawbItwm iawfevurwh eretea egiawlwSwf .evekekwtwlih
WrukWdwa caeruawd umcaihum iawgumudefua cnulehcnib Iaim .eveaerukctWg
.evekeawlwSwf

idwa wncnoa cnegiawSwv eguDnwgibnob Iaim : (crust) uDnwgiSot -3
eretea egukwtwlih Wviawfidefua wlwSwf im .eveawlwSwf urEb emcnea egumib
cnimOb egiawlwSwf im cnuSwd egukwtuDnwkWm .eveawDuk caeLokcnwt cnwkcnumih
egiawlwSwf im cnuSwd egukwtwdwburwf csua idwa .evekeLokurwTIMOlik Inwncnuh
.eveaeruh urwTImOlik 70 iawgunimOb

iawgumwkcaeCcaea wncnuh cSokcSokctWkwrwH udwbwaWt ,iSot egumib cswkwaemcnok
Wviawfidefua iSot egumib ,iawgEret egEa .eveaev caekwtcawtcnwk cawtea Wv
iaWkwturcawb ,iaWkwtutWfwt wncnuh iawgumwkcnumih Eretea egukwtwlih
egiawlwSwfuDnwgibnob ,cawtwlih wncnuh cniDwa egukwtwdwburwf iaWkwtuDnwk
wncnuh iawgunimurwb egukwtwlih ea uria Emed iawgItwm iawb wncnuhiawfiriv
im .eveaenemih cnuludOk cnegiriv iawbItwm egiawlwSwf uDnwgibnob ,iaWtWfwt
.eveaev caekwtctWkwrwH Edefua cnubwbws egukwtcawtcnwk
:Iaea
cniruk IkwlWsim egIm : (Divergent Movement) ctWkwrwH WrukEf -1
cnumwvEf evikwv urcawb Wkiremea iaWrcawb Wkircfea ctoa cSwkwDnwgitwkea
.evemutoa ctoa iawfidefua uDnwkWm ckiTcnWlcTea iawgudem eretEdea csog
uDnwkctwr iawgEretEdea ,evEf udemed WaWkircfea iaWawrwk ibwrwA idwa
cawtea ,wmwnWd cnumwvEf iawgutogim ctWkwrwH im .evemutoa ctoa iawfidefua
wdwf cawtuDnwkWm iteDob egEyinud csevuDnwkctwr cnuhwf caerwhwa cnwyilim
.evekemwk WvcnegISwkea Ikwmuvulwdwb cSwkwDnwkWm

cawturwvitof Iaim : (Convergent Movement) ctWkwrwH WrukctWg -2
csua cnubwbws egutWkwrwH im .evetWkwrwH Wvctwt evctWg WCcaekenwa itwkea
cnwaiDcnia) irwveretea cnutog egcaelWsim egEa .eveaedefua cawtwdwburwf
Wviawfidefua cnegevctwt ihej urcawb WyixEa iaWa (cTcneniTcnokcbws
iawgutib ugnwLuh egWkiremea unuked idwa .eveaenemih cawtwdwburwf WyilWmih
.evekekwtwdwburwf egutwvWbim csevIkwkwtwdwburwf czIDcnia wncnoa

cnegiawrwa itofcaenwa cnitwmitofcaea Iaim :ctWkwrwH WlWscawk -3
,ugnorIdcawHwrws Wvulwdwb ,cSwnwtcnwt wdwfim .evemuyidWd cnegiawlWscawk
.eveawyik Ea (transform Boundaries) wmwncnuhwb isEriginia wtwvun

cnwtcnwt wncnwa cnulehcnib iawguTWC egumib

cswyiv iawgumwkctoa caebwbws wlwhwk emcnok iawgutwhwf egumulehcnib
iaWmulWscawk caerwvitof cnuDnwgiSot egumib Iaea IkwCcaea ea iawguriKWa
idwa .evekemuLol wncnwgirutef iawgumib iawgiawfis egcaeNcnWb cnegidiv
cSwkwtog cnWmoa iritiawm Wm InWd urwhwf wnig ctWkwrwH im WlWscawk
iawb wncnoa cnegihej Wywbea iaWywb Wruk ctWkwrwH ,wtcaeaikidwa .evenUn
.eveawgcaetog wdwfwdwg cSwrwv cnubwbws egumutcaEk

Wvirevudem cnwrwacnuLol InWLwawDnwk caenim wdwg-ilwb egukwtinWb egumuLol
inwkeawmwh Iaea wmwnInwvwncnwd cSwkwtog cnehea .evenimwdwg egutWkwrwH
OtcaeaWXirWk iretWkcawrun InWvWmid cnumwkea wtwvun OtcaeaWXidWH
idwa .evencnukwnim wdwfwdwg egutWkwrwH ivencned im InWLwawDnwk
caenwt Wyik Ea cswkOf iawgcaeaWtukun ikwv egIDwa umib ,cnulehcnib
ivencned im InWncnwa cnegiawrwa cSwCcawm cawtinWb egumuLol .eveawdcawfua
cSwaWtukun wncnuh iawgiawhwtws egumib cnutogWvWmid Waim .evencniaWtukun
.evea ''Epicenter" uzwkurwm Ihwtws Inwyik

cnWvwgwhWf ,uriaWrukwgwhWf cnukwTWC cnwtcnwt wncnwa cnulehcnib iawgEyinud
cniaeret egEa ,wtcaeaikidwa .evencnUn caeawgcaetwlWH ubIturwtWn Inwncnoa
cawtunEl im .eveawgcaenEl cnit uDnwgiawm Inwviawfirutea caeawbuDob
egEa .eveaeviawfimed cSwrud cSwrwv cSokcswruh cawturcawb iaWkwtuDnwk
ckifisep IkwnEl wdwgurWb emcnea idwa urUhcxwm emcnea csevcniaeret
im cnutog im .evenEl ctoa iawfimed cSwgid egIrEscawa Itwmuria eguDnwk
cnutWrwf caenwa iaWSwfirEscawa ugnwLuh egurcawbed Wkiremea IkwnEl
ugid Wviawfimed cSwbWrcsim ea cSwkwnimugid caea Wa cscnIpilif iaWnWpwj
csevcSwaWyilEruTcsoa iaWSwDcnelizuyin caeLok eg WtIf im .evekeaWtIf
iawgunEl im Ikwa %81 egumulehcnib wncnwa cSwaeyinud .eveaeviawfWrOf
idwa urwhwa wnwv 1964 iawg Wkcswlea cnutog ea .evekwtcnuleh Wgnih
idwa urwhwa wnwv 1985 iawgIliC idwa urwhwa wnwv 1970 iawgUrep
im csevIkwkwtcnulehcnib ignih iawgunWpwj iawgutwrutwf 1995 - 1923
.evekwtcnuleh Wviawfileh cnunEl

iawgunwtcnwt im Ikwbwbws .eveawyik csev Ea "uLob cnWfilwa'' cSwnEl im
caemuvog egcaeawdwburwfcnWfilwa cnegidiv Wkwtcnulehcnib Eleh cSwrwhwfwnig
Wyibcnwlok urwhwa wnwv 1992 urwbcmevon 14 IkwlWsim egIm .evemwkWvog
czIDcnia uhwvud caenwa eguhwvudignih WXidWH im .evemulehcnib unuleh iawg
.evetukun caekwtcnuvog egiawdwburwfcnWfilwa cnitwm ukwtwdwburwf

wncnoa iawgWmid WairEscawa ugnwLuh eguDnwkWm ckifisep IkwnEl wnwved
.evencnubWsih WkwtWrIzwj unWpwj Inwncnwa cnegiSef unEl im .evenEl
WkwtWrIzwj WyixEnoDcnia csog cniriawk cawtWrIzwj cnWviawT uhwfcSwaea
.eveawrOf cSwbWsih

uhwfcSwaea .evencniaWvWj eg WyixEnoDcnia IneSef unEl wnwvcnit
uDnwk Eretudem emukun iawfiawl cniaeret WyilWmih csog cniaWrutwmUs
ukiTcnWluTea Inemin csog ukea iaWkwywb cniaWkircfea urutua cSokcswruh
.evencnunEl im Inwncnwa cnulehcnib %17 egEyinud .eveSwDnwk

igWyit cSwrwv ctWkwrwH egiawdwburwfcnWfilwa IkwkwtunEl im
cSwmwkcaebwbws egEa .evekekwtunEl wnig cnulehcnib ItWv cSwkwkwtudcawHwrws
cnwtcnwt Wvulwdcawb cawturwvitof Wviawfidefoa uDnwgiSot egumib Inwv
iawfevinut cawturwvitof iawgIDwa egukwtuDnwk .evemuv cnwtcnwtim iawgumwk
Ikwkwtitof im cniawdwf unuverukctWrWxia csevcniruk .evelob iawgurcawb
Itwmcawtwlih unUh WviawfevWyid iriv iawgiawbItwm egiawlwSwf uDnwgibnob
eg udnwhidcaefua .evekekwturwvitof wncnuh imedimed cSwtWz Emed Wyoa
caea Eret egcaerwhwa cawturwvitof im iawgutogWkcawd cnukwtOTof
.eveaerukctWkwrwH cSwkwnimurud egudemed WrwTImiTcnes whid iaWrwTImiTcnes

cten caemuLug csevcaea WkwtunEl unuverukcnWywb cniruk ,csevcSwfWliK Waim
.eveaedWa cnulehcnib csev cSwnwtcnwt


iawfibneg cSwaeret egunef Itoa cniruk csrWm -

: urWb egumurukWvurwf Enemih iawgukwtwluk -
caetwqIqwH ivinwvurukcnWriawH
ctwncAwl eg unuawAcrif -
?Wbok IkwaWfIzwv eguDWk csckifercg iawgcaerwTuaipcmok -
.ifiawvunof cawtOTof wluk egcsrWm cnia cTiripcs -
.ifiawvunof cSwmib cawtOTof egcsrWm cniacTiripcs -
csODcniv cniaereteguKIrWt -
.cSwr IKIrWt ivukWlwh iawgumulehcnib : cmwb -
?wtcaetwqIqwH ..iteCcaea Ehudua EgnEnctog -
.cnegiLoa Inuved cSwaWkiremea cSwacswbcmwlok -
..caemulWlwb cSwacswriawv rwTuaipcmok -